Outline of 
Roberts, A History of Europe
Book Six - Chapter III

III. The end of the European post-war order [548]

1.USSR evident dissidence
a.ground-swell of opinion that further material gains were needed
2.Mutually assured Destruction - led to prudence and cooperation
3.detente
4.1970s talks on arms limitations [549]
a.1974 Helsinki Conference on Security and Co- operation in Europe
b.implicit recognition of Europe's post-war frontiers
c.increase economic intercourse between eastern and western Europe
d.guarantee of human rights an dpolitical freedom
5.Improved television broadcasting, cessation of radio jamming
6.US - Vietnam - national psychological disaster
a.resignation of Nixon - 1974
7.Iran- revolution overthre Shah
a.denouncing USSR as well as USA [549]
8.1979 Soviet forces sent to Afghanistan
9.1980 American diplomats hostage in Iran
10.American Presidential election of 1980
a.played on voter's sense of national weakness and fears of USSR
b.President Reagon
(1)pragmatism in foreign affairs
(2)remarkable recovery in the confidence and morale of US citizens. [550]

1.October 1973, Yom Kippur - attack by Egypt and Syria on Israel
a.Egypt & Syria - Soviet armed
b.Russians reported to have sent nuclear weapons to Egypt
c.US forces on alert around the world
d.announcement of restrictions o oil supply to Europe, Japan, and the US by Arab states led by Saudi Arabia
2. Oil prices shot up
a.50s and 60s stable and cheap oil prices
b.Dependence on oil imports
c.Balance-of-payment problems
3.Decades-long trend of world importance, Europe's continuing advance in wealth and share of world trade since 1958
4.1979 European Monetary System
5.Uneasiness about success of Far Eastern economic sphere - esp. Japan
6.EEC
a.1973 United Kingdom joined EEC
b.1979 first direct elections to European parliament
c.Greece in 1981 Spain and Portugal in 1986 joined
d.1986 Single European Act - not require unanimity
e.1987 foundation of common European Currency
f.1992 genuine single market

1.25 yrs govts failed to combine economic groth increased social service provision and high level of employment
a.handicapped by international trade
b.handicapped by old staple industries
2.Northern Ireland
3.1970s inflation
4.Referendum on staying in EEC
a.June 1975 - unambiguously favourable
5.Oil fields discovered in sea-bed - GB becomes oil- exporting nation

1.Social and political changes slowly for 30 years
2.Remarkable uniformity of structure
a.Communist Party supreme - careerists
b.Unspeakable adn unexaminable past
c.Economics
(1)Surge of early growth
(2)Trading with other communist countires
(3)Central planning
(4)Unable to meet demand for consumer goods
(5)Private ownership in countryside greatly reduced
(a)Cooperatives and state farms
(b)By 1960s in Poland
i)peasants moving back to small holdings
ii)Four-fifths returned to private ownership
(6)Low output in agriculture
3.Brezhnev doctrine (speech in 1968
a.Development in eastern block countries might require direct intervention
b.By `980 no dictatorship survived west of Triest- Stettin line
4.After 1970 and more after Helsinki, dissident groups emerged
a.Scepticism about effects of detailed centralized planning
b.Key to stability = Soviet Army
c.1970s "native Russian-speakers for the first time became a minority in the Soviety Union" [554]

1.1985 Gorbachev - age 54
a.New political tone
(1)Glasnost (openness)
(2)Perestroika (restructuring)
b.Realized without radical modernization, Soviet economy could not keep up military might
2.1986 - Chernobyl in Ukraine, nuclear accident
a.Political campaigns of environmentalists benefited.
3.Foreign affairs - discussion of arms reduction [555]
a.1987 agreement over intermediate range nuclear missiles
b.1991 - major reductions in existing weapon stocks
c.1989 USSR withdrew from Afghanistan
(1)Soviet intevention had aroused anger in Moslem countries

1.Beginning of 1980s - economic stagnation
2.1982 - Falkland Islands reconquered by Brtiain
3.Mrs. Thatcher's prestige rose
a.Longest tenure of power of any British prime minister this century
b.Transformed the terms of British politics
c.Failed to achieve most cherished aims
(1)Reduction of public spending
(2)Less government intervention in national life
d.Resigned in 1990 - Mr. Major, successor

1.Early 1980s process of recovery of independence begun
a.Collective integrity by following their priests, not their rulers
(1)1978- Polish Pope
(2)1970s church supported workers
b.Strikes in 1980
(1)Gedansk shipyard - Solidarity, Lech Welesa
(2)Picture of pope on gates, open-air masses
2.Government concessions -
a.recognized SOlidarity as trade union
b.Masses broadcast on radio
c.Soviety army didnot move
3.1981
a.December 13 martial law -
(1)fierce repression
(2)but no Soviet army
b.Solidarity underground for 7 years
c.Poles began to behave as if they lived in a free country
4.Economy declined
5.1989 acceptance that other political parties and organizations had to share in political process
a.Elections in June
b.Solidarity swept the board
c.New parliament denoucned Govern-Soviet agreement of August 1939 [557]
d.August 1989 - Welesa announced Solidarity would support a coalition government [559]
e.Gorbachev said this was justifiable - Soviet military units withdrawn
f.September coalition took office -
(1)first non-communist prime minister since 1945
(2)first non-communist government in eastern Europe since 1948

1.Changes
a.Growth of east-west trade
b.Information about non-communist countires through television
c.Freedom of movement
d.access to foreign books and newpapers
2.Germany
a.August 1989 Germans from GDR allowed to enter Hungary as tourists
(1)Went to embassy of Federal Republic to seek asylum
(2)Complete opening of frontiers in September
b.Czechsolovakia did same
c.12,000 East Germans crossed to west in 3 days
d.East German government threw out leaders
e.September 9 - breaching of Berln Wall, then demolition of Wall
(1)9,000,000 east Germans visited West Berlin and West Germany 
(2)Federal Republic gave them 100 deutschmarks as welcome money [559] >/ul>
3.1989 Clear that communist governments had no legitimacy for subjects
a.Demand for free elections
b.1990 new Polish constitution, Walesa president
c.1990 Hungary elected parliament - non communist
(1)Soviet troops withdrew
d.June 1990 Czechoslovakia free govenment
(1)May 1991 Soviet forces to leave
e.Bulgaria - communist party members won, turned reformers
f.Rumania - violent upheaval December 1989

1.March 1990 - election in GDR -
a.48% vote, majority of seats to Christian Democrats (ruling party of Federal Republic
b.July 1990 begin monetary, economic and social union of 2 Germanies [560]
c.October 3 new constitution, Kohl first Chancellor or reunited Germany
d.America, western Europe agreed
e.Moscov did not oppose
(1)Treaty promising German economic help for Soviet modernization

1.Early years of Gorbachev
a.power taken from party - emerging opposition
b.Republics claim some autonomy
c.Economic picture bad [561]
2.1989 Soviet economy out of control and running down
a.Modernization launched from center and resisted
3.1990
a.Public opinion polls
b.Orthodox Church retained respect
c.Possibility of civil war
4.Nationalist and regional feeling
a.Especially Baltic republics: Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania
5.Signs of disintegration
a.Gorbachev - formal enhancements of nominal powers
b.March 1990 Lithuanian parliament declared independence
c.Latvia and Estonia claimed independence
d.Gorbachev won agreements continuing practical services to USSR
e.End of 1990 parliaments in 9 Soviet republics declared soverignty or independence [562]
(1)Local languages official
(2)Transferred Soveit ministries and economic agencies to local control
(3) Russian republic run own economy separately from Union
(4)Ukrainian republic set up own army

1.End of 1990
2.Former communist countries applied to join Ec
a.Czechosolvakia
b.Poland
c.Hungary
3.Virulent emergence of national and ethnic divisions
4.Storm clouds of economic failure